CHAPTER 3 : AGRO - ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

CLIMATE

1) TROPICS 

A tropical climate is a climate typically found within the Tropics, while a few locations outside the Tropics are considered to have a tropical climate. 

The tropical climate is unlike the extra- tropics, where there are strong variations in day length and temperature, with season, tropical temperature remains relatively constant throughout the year and seasonal variations are dominated by precipitation. 


The tropics is:

• High temperature
• a lot of rainfall
• many agriculture activities 

Rubber tree

 Coconuts 

2) TEMPERATE

Temperate latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions.The temperatures in these regions are generally relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold, and the changes between summer and winter are also usually moderate.

In certain areas, such as Asia and central North America, the variations between summer and winter can be extreme because these areas are far away from the sea, causing them to have a continental climate. Temperate is neither too warm nor too cold and also neither too wet nor too dry 

Crops planted in spring, harvested in summer ( maize & wheat )

Vegetables continuously grown during winter in glass house

Large cattle reared for milk and beef performed best in the temperate region

Livestock farming is most suitable

3) TUNDRA 

The tundra is a bleak and treeless place. It is cold through all months of the year Summer is a brief period od milder climates when the sun shine almost 24 hours a day. It has been called "the land of the midnight sun". Three types of tundra which artic tundra, antarctic tundra and alphine tundra.

Low temperature < 10 °C   

The short summer lasts only 6 to 10 weeks. It never gets any warmer than 45 or 50 ° F. The warmer weather cause a layer of permafrost, ice that never goes away in the ground, to melt, creating bogs and shallow lakes that don't drain.

Long , clod dark winter (6-10 month) 

The tundra is freezing for almost all of the year with no traditional seasons, only a very long winter. Winter conditions in the tundra exist most of the year, with the exception of a very short mild season which passes for summer. 

The type of vegetation that grows on the tundra are grass, shrubs of willow, sedges, and lichens. The vegetation grows very slowly because of the hard winter. 

The animals in the tundra put on heavy coats to adaption to the harsh climate. Example of this adaption would be the coats on the caribou, reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare and the arctic fox. 

4) DESERT 

Desert climate also know as an arid climate is a climate that does not meet the criteria to be classified as a polar climate, and in which precipitation is too to sustain any vegetation at all or at most a very scanty shrub. 

An are that features this climate usually experience less than 250 mm (10 inches) per year of precipitation and in some years may experience no precipitation at all. In some instances, an area may experience more than 250 mm of precipitation annually but is considered a desert climate because the region loses more water falls as precipitation. For example tucson, arizone Northern territory. 

WATER

   

The agriculture activities such as rain-fed or irrigation. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. 

Irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production , which include protecting plants against frost suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or fry land farming. In Southern Peninsular Malaysia, the annual rainfall is more than 3000 mm, it is suitable for oil palm cultivation. 

However, Kedah and Perlis region the annual rainfall is less than 2000 mm and it is more suitable for rubber and mangoes.

Rubber

Mangoes

Soil 

Soil is an importance agriculture resource. From soil, plants obtain water and nutrients which ultimately are returned to the soil as indicated diagrammatically and briefly in the Nutrient Cycle.

• Rain water falls to the ground ia soaked up by the soil. Nutrient elements are dissolved in the water are taken up by plants.
•  Water moves from the roots to be distributed throughout the plant and is then lost through the process of evapo-transpiration. 
• As the plant grows, some parts like the leaves become senescent and drop to group and become part of soil as human and organic matter. 

As these parts decompose, nutrients are released back in to soil to be available again, thus completing the nutrient cycle.

Nutrient Cycle

There are many types of soil based on factors of soil formation such as parent material, climate, topography, vegetations and time.

Soil types for Peninsular Malaysia (Main Range to Coastline) based on topography

CHAPTER 2 : THE TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURE

There are 3 steps in evolution of agriculture which are :

1) Prehistoric Era

Three great ages of prehistoric time which are stone age , bronze age and iron age. 

                                        

• The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make implements with a sharp edge, a point, or a percussion surface. 
• The Stone Age is the first of the three-age system of archaeology . 

• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin that is more hard than either pure copper or tin. In addition, bronze has a lower melting point than copper or tin making it easier to form into finished shapes by moulding, casting, or machining. While a harder metal, bronze still did not break easily under stress and was corrosion resistant. Bronze was better suited for weapons and tools than either copper or tin.  

• Iron age may be defined as including the last stages of the prehistoric period and the first of the protohistoric periods.
• The Iron Age is characterized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements, and utensils.
• These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvi linear rather than simple rectilinear .

2 )  The Middle Ages

Farming in the Middle Ages was very backward. Farmers did not know how to enrich the soil by the use of fertilizers or how to provide for a proper rotation of crops. Farm animals were small, for scientific breeding had not yet begun. A full-grown ox reached a size scarcely larger than a calf of to-day, and the fleece of a sheep often weighed less than two ounces

Farm tools and implements were few and clumsy. The wooden ploughs only scratched the ground. Farrowing was done with a hand implement little better than a large rake. Grain was cut with a sickle, and grass was mown with a scythe. It took five men a day to reap and bind the harvest of two acres.

3 ) Modern Agriculture

In modern agricultural systems farmers believe they have much more central roles and are eager to apply technology and information to control most components of the system, a very different view from that of traditional farmers. In contrast to the isolation inherent in traditional arrangements, modern agriculture tends to see its success as dependant on linkages—access to resources, technology, management, investment, markets and supportive government policies. 

• Two goals of modern Agriculture systems
• To obtain highest yields possible
• To get the highest economic profit possible

Green Revolution

The Green Revolution was a period when the productivity of global agriculture increased drastically as a result of new advances. During this time period, new chemical fertilizers and synthetic herbicides and pesticides were created. The chemical fertilizers made it possible to supply crops with extra nutrients and, therefore, increase yield. The newly developed synthetic herbicides and pesticides controlled weeds, deterred or kill insects, and prevented diseases, which also resulted in higher productivity.

Benefits of the Green Revolution

•  To produce much larger quantities of food. 
•  To feed the growing human population.
•  To reduced production costs and also resulted in cheaper prices for food in the market.

BLUE REVOLUTION

The term "blue revolution" refers to the remarkable emergence of aquaculture as an important and highly productive agricultural activity. Aquaculture refers to all forms of active culturing of aquatic animals and plants, occurring in marine, brackish, or fresh waters.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF MODERN AGRICULTURE

What is Agriculture ?

   

  

Agriculture can be defined as the utilization of resources systems to produce commodities which maintain life. Example: Food, Fiber, Forest Product, Horticultural crops and their related services. It involve farming; production crops for food and rearing livestock. 

Production Crops for Food

 Rearing Livestock

What is Modern Agriculture?

Modern agriculture is a business; it is not only the production, but also the processing of produce onto food and non-food items. Example: Oil Palm - processed into many food items, pharmaceuticals, soap, detergent and biofuel.  Other example:  Rubber, Cocoa and Herbal Plants .

                       

                                                                                The products containing Palm Oil

                

             

 The products containing Rubber

                         

                    

 The products containing Cocoa

There have been continuous improvement in agriculture:

1. Productions methods, technology adopted to increase the efficiency of production.
2. Resources such as resources and knowledgeable human capital including scientists, inventors, engineers, chemists and economists.
3. Involve many disciplines of science.

Other field involve in agriculture such as engineering, technology, biological sciences and physical sciences.

WHY Importance in Agriculture??

1. Underdeveloped Country - need food to survival
2. Developing/Advance industrialized country - produce raw material for industrialized nation.(Example: Rubber, Livestock, Cocoa, Palm Oil etc)
3. Maintain social-political stability in difficult time (Eg: Drought) - need food stock-pile
4. Income - now the agriculture wastes into feeds and fertilizers (organs farm), and oil palm wood press, and high value wooden tiles (waterproof).

Agriculture Systems and Practices

Subsistence Farming

This is a farming system characterized by a low input with a resultant low yield and inter-cropping. Practices may involve slash and burn and more progressive stationary cultivation. Subsistence farming involve working on plot of land to produce only enough food to feed the household and there is no extra food to sell or store.

Shifting Cultivation

  

• Most Primitive form
• Once Soil fertility declines, farmer abandon
• Domesticated livestock for food- small enclosure or limited free range

Commercialised Farming

 

In plant agriculture, it is charactised by monoculture or cultivation of a combination of a few crops( example :oil palm and rubber). It requires the use of high yielding modern varieties, application of chemical (pesticides, weedicides and fertilizers), high technology and extensive mechanisation.

1. Tropical Plantation Agriculture

 It is solely a monocropping system dominated by perennial crops. (Eg: Rubber, Oil palm, cocoa, coffee, coconut and tea). It is suitable for the humid tropical climate. The raw material export to industrial nation.

 Rubber

 Oil Palm

Tea

2. Vegetable Farming

It is labour intensive and involves specialised cultivation in rowa and blocks, open or enclosed. The use machinery has increased efficency and output. Due to market demand for fresh vegetables, ripening technologies and refrigeration have been developed to reduce the problems with getting produce to market in good condition.

 Soilless Culture System

Organic Farming

3. Aquaculture

It is a purposeful cultivation od aquatic organisms as opposed to simply catching them from wild. Aquaculture includes maricultture (culture in the ocean), algaculture (production of kelp/ seaweed and other algae), fish  and prawn farming and the growing of oysters and cultured pearls.

Fish or prawn

Oyster

Fish or prawn

4. Livestock Farming

It involving raising livestocks to make products such as food and fibre. Livestock are generally kept in an enclosure or allowed to roam freely.

 Cow -Milk

Chicken - Egg